Socrates

Socrates As Plato’s Teacher

The Influence Of Socrates On Plato

Feelosofi –  Socrates’ influence on Plato was enormous and formed the basis of Plato’s philosophical thought. Plato was one of Socrates’ most famous students and inherited many of his great teacher’s ideas and methods of thought. Following are some of the ways in which Socrates influenced Plato :

1. Dialectical Method : One of Socrates’ greatest contributions was the development of the dialectical method, which involved incisive questions and in-depth discussions to achieve better understanding. Plato inherited this method from Socrates and used it extensively in his writings.
2. Ethical Thought : Ethics was one of Socrates’ main focuses, and concepts about morality and deep moral values ​​influenced Plato’s thinking . Plato defended an idea of ​​goodness that was rooted in a true understanding of morality, which he discovered largely through the teachings of Socrates.
3. Theory of Knowledge : Socrates believed that true knowledge is knowledge of what is true. Plato inherited this view and developed it in his thinking on the “Theory of Forms “, which said that the real world is a shadow of true and ideal forms.
4. Politics and Justice : Socrates frequently engaged in conversations about politics and justice, and his views on how government should function influenced Plato’s thinking . Plato developed his own view of the ideal state in his work “The State” (The Republic), which was a response to Socrates’ views on politics.
5. Moral Philosophy : Socrates taught the importance of ethics and morality in human life. This view provides the basis for Plato’s moral thought , which explains that moral goodness is the key to achieving happiness and a deep understanding of the world.
6. Educational Influence : Socrates also influenced Plato’s thinking about education. Socrates believed that education should encourage individuals to reflect on moral values ​​and pursue true knowledge. This approach is reflected in Plato’s concept of education which emphasizes philosophical and moral training.

Differences In The Philosophy Of Socrates And Plato

Although Socrates was Plato ‘s teacher and there are many similarities in their thinking, there are also significant differences between Socrates’ and Plato’s philosophies. Here are some key differences between the two:

1. Philosophical Method :
   • Socrates: Socrates is known for his Socratic dialectical method, which involves pointed questions and dialogue to achieve deeper understanding. He often probes other people’s thoughts with sharp questions.
   • Plato: Plato inherited the Socratic dialectical method and used it in his works. However, he also developed his own philosophical methods, such as the use of allegories and stories in his writing.
2. Knowledge Concept :
   • Socrates: Socrates emphasized the importance of true knowledge, especially knowledge of what is true and good. He believes that goodness is the result of deep moral understanding.
   • Plato: Plato developed the concept of “Theory of Forms ” , which states that the real world is a shadow of true and ideal forms. This leads to the view that true knowledge is knowledge of these forms.
3. Political Thought :
   • Socrates: Socrates often engaged in political conversations, but he did not have strong political views or a particular political system. He focused more on individual morality than politics.
   • Plato: Plato had clear political views and developed the concept of the ideal state in his work “The State” ( The Republic ). He proposed that states should be ruled by philosopher-kings, and he discussed the idea of ​​a just and ideally organized society.
4. Write Write :
   • Socrates: Socrates did not write any books or formal philosophical works. Information about his thinking comes from the writings of his students, especially Plato and Xenophon.
   • Plato: Plato was a prolific writer and wrote many philosophical dialogues, essays, and letters. His works, such as “The Republic,” “Faidros,” and “Parmenides,” became classics in Western philosophy .
5. Views on Religion :
   • Socrates: Socrates was tried and sentenced to death because he was accused of blaspheming the Greek gods. Although he often raised critical questions about traditional religion, his view of the divine was sometimes ambiguous.
   • Plato: Plato seems to have had a more complex view of the relationship between philosophy and religion. In his works, he sometimes describes the idea of ​​a higher God.

Plato’s Contribution In Inheriting Socrates’ Teachings

Plato, a student of Socrates, played an important role in passing down Socratic teachings and transmitting them to subsequent generations. The following are some of Plato’s key contributions in passing down Socratic teachings:

1. Writing Socratic Dialogues : One of Plato’s main contributions was writing philosophical dialogues featuring Socrates as the main character. Through his writings, such as “Apologia,” “Faidros,” and “Kriton,” Plato immortalized dialogues involving Socrates and recorded the sharp questions and critical thinking taught by the great teacher. It provides a deep understanding of the Socratic dialectical method.
2. Developing Further Thoughts : Apart from simply recording Socratic dialogues, Plato also developed and expanded Socratic thoughts in his own writings. He explores ideas such as ideal forms, theories of knowledge, ethics , politics, and many other aspects of philosophy. This helped develop broader philosophical thinking based on the foundations laid by Socrates.
3. Creating Classical Philosophical Works : Plato was a prolific writer and wrote many classical philosophical works, including “The Republic”, “The State of Law” (Laws), and “Parmenides.” In this work, he combined Socratic thought with his own intellectual contributions, creating works that are famous and important in the history of philosophy.
4. Philosophical Approach to Education : Plato viewed education as an important element in shaping individuals and society. This view is reflected in his work “The State,” in which he expounds the idea of ​​an ideal philosophical education, following the spirit of Socratic teachings about the importance of knowledge and moral understanding.
5. Influence on Western Philosophy : Plato’s contribution in passing on Socratic teachings not only had an impact on ancient philosophical thought, but also became the basis for the wider development of Western philosophy. His ideas about knowledge, ethics , politics, and ideal reality are still the subject of discussion and research in philosophy today.

VIII. The Philosophical Heritage Of Socrates

The Influence Of Socrates In The History Of Philosophy

Socrates’ influence on the history of philosophy was enormous and continuing. He is one of the most important thinkers in the development of Western philosophy, and his contributions shaped many aspects of philosophy, ethics, logic , and philosophical methodology. Here are some of the ways in which Socrates influenced the history of philosophy :

1. Dialectical Method : Socrates introduced the dialectical method, which involves pointed questions and in-depth discussion, as a major tool in philosophy . This method became the foundation for the critical thinking method that is characteristic of Western philosophy .
2. Emphasis on Knowledge and Ethics : Socrates emphasized the importance of true knowledge and ethical understanding in human life. This sparked the development of ethical thinking in philosophy and a deep understanding of knowledge.
3. The Importance of Self-Knowledge : The concept of “Know Thyself” put forward by Socrates is an important principle in philosophy . Self-understanding is the starting point in the search for knowledge and goodness.
4. Moral and Political Thought : Socrates was often involved in discussions about morality and politics, and his thoughts in this regard made a major contribution to the development of ethics and political theory in philosophy.
5. Influence on Students : Socrates had many famous students, including Plato and Xenophon, who took his teachings and developed their own ideas. Plato, in particular, played a large role in preserving Socratic teachings and developing them in his work.
6. Uncertainty and Critical Thinking : Socrates emphasizes uncertainty in human knowledge and stimulates critical thinking. This approach helped shape the scientific method and rational thinking in the history of human thought.
7. Interest in Justice and Wisdom : Socrates often raised questions about justice and wisdom in human actions. His thinking in this regard influenced the development of ethics and political philosophy.
8. Influence on Western Philosophy : Socrates’ influence can be seen in many schools of Western philosophy, including Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism, and Neoplatonism. His ideas remain the subject of discussion and research in philosophy today.

Philosophy Of Uncertainty

Socrates is known for his approach which often produces “uncertainty” in thoughts and beliefs. His philosophy emphasizes uncertainty as the starting point in the search for true knowledge. The following is the concept of “uncertainty” in Socrates’ philosophy :

1. Awareness of Uncertainty : Socrates understood that human knowledge is often uncertain and subject to variation. Therefore, he encourages people to be aware of the uncertainty in their beliefs and not to take things for granted without question.
2. Critical Thinking : Socrates stimulated critical thinking by continually asking challenging questions. He not only accepted the answer easily but was determined to understand the basis of the belief. This often reveals uncertainty in the other person’s thinking.
3. The “Don’t Know” Question : Socrates’ famous saying is “I only know that I don’t know.” This reflects his humble approach to knowledge. He realized that not all questions had definite answers and that true knowledge was difficult to achieve.
4. The Search for True Knowledge : Although Socrates acknowledged uncertainty, he remained committed to the search for deeper and truer knowledge. Critical thinking and discussion are the means to approach true knowledge, although he is not sure of achieving it completely.
5. The Importance of Dialogue : Socrates used dialogue as a tool to explore deeper understanding. This dialogue often produces uncertainty in the thoughts and beliefs of others, as Socrates challenges them to reflect and question.

Controversy Regarding Socrates’ Philosophy

Socrates’ philosophy not only had a positive influence, but also created several controversies during his lifetime and after his death. Some controversies related to Socrates’ philosophy include:

1. Blasphemy Against the Gods : Socrates was accused of blaspheming the ancient Greek gods because he often asked critical questions about traditional religious beliefs. This made him unpopular among the religious and political authorities of his day.
2. Influence on Youth : Socrates had many followers, including the youth of Athens. His influence on the younger generation created concern among the authorities, who thought that the youth could be influenced by Socrates’ thoughts and actions that were considered subversive.
3. Views on Democracy : Socrates had disagreements with some aspects of Athenian democracy. He criticized the view that policy guidance should be taken from a majority vote without considering proper knowledge or understanding.
4. Trial and Death Sentence : One of the greatest controversies was the trial and death sentence of Socrates. He was tried by the people of Athens and sentenced to death by drinking poison because he was considered to have blasphemed the gods and influenced youth negatively. The trial has raised questions about fairness and free speech in a democracy.
5. Conflict with Other Famous Figures : Socrates often clashed with other famous figures in Athenian philosophy and politics, such as the Sophists. This conflict created intense philosophical debate in the city.
6. Socrates’ Attitude Toward Education : Socrates’ approach to education and its influence on youth has also been a subject of controversy. Some people see him as a teacher who guides youth towards critical thinking, while others see him as a bully who influences the younger generation in a negative way.

Myths And Facts About Socrates

Unraveling The Myth About Socrates

There are several myths that have developed around the figure of Socrates, especially because his history was written by his students, such as Plato and Xenophon, who could have different points of view. Here are some myths that need to be debunked about Socrates:

1. Socrates Wrote Books : One common myth is that Socrates wrote his own books or works. However, Socrates actually left no written record of his thinking. Understanding of Socrates’ philosophy and teachings comes from the writings of his students, especially Plato and Xenophon.
2. Socrates was the First Philosopher : Socrates is often considered the first philosopher in history. Although he had a major influence on the development of philosophy , such as the introduction of the dialectical method, the history of philosophy records that Pre-Socratic philosophers such as Thales and Pythagoras had existed before him.
3. Socrates Only Asked Questions, Did Not Give Answers : There is a misconception that Socrates only asked questions and did not give answers. Socrates is known for using sharp questions in his dialogues, but he also conveys his personal thoughts and views through these dialogues.
4. Socrates Didn’t Care About His Family : Several historical sources describe Socrates as someone who didn’t care about his family. However, in the writings of Plato and Xenophon, it is revealed that Socrates was a loyal husband and father who cared about his family.
5. Socrates was an Atheist : Socrates was tried and sentenced to death because he was accused of blaspheming the Greek gods. However, this does not mean that he is an atheist . He raises critical questions about traditional religious beliefs, but his view of the divine remains ambiguous.
6. Socrates Didn’t Care About Politics : Some opinions state that Socrates didn’t care about politics and society. In fact, he often engages in political conversations and explores ideas about justice, governance, and citizenship in his dialogue.
7. Socrates was a Formal Teacher : Socrates never received payment for his teaching and did not teach in a formal school. He was more of a figure who interacted with people from various walks of life in informal discussions in the city of Athens.

In unraveling these myths, it is important to understand that our understanding of Socrates comes primarily from the writings of his students and can be subject to different interpretations.

Facts About The Life And Death Of Socrates

Here are some important facts about Socrates’ life and death:

1. Date of Birth : Socrates was born around 470 BC in Athens, Ancient Greece. However, his exact date of birth is not known.
2. Parents : Socrates’ father was Sophroniscus, a sculptor and statue factory owner, while his mother was Phaenarete, a midwife.
3. Marriage and Family : Socrates married Xanthippe, a woman known for her firm nature. They had three children together: two sons, Lamprocles and Menexenus, as well as a daughter, whose name is not recorded.
4. Early Occupations : Before becoming a philosopher , Socrates worked as a stonemason and statue mason like his father. However, he later turned to being a full-time philosopher , although he received no payment for his teaching.
5. Dialectical Method : Socrates is known for his dialectical method, which involves pointed questions and in-depth discussions to achieve better understanding. This method became a characteristic in his thinking and teaching.
6. Influence on Students : Socrates had many famous students, including Plato , Xenophon, and Alcibiades. Plato, in particular, became a great thinker who inherited and developed Socratic thought.
7. Trial and Death Sentence : In 399 BC, Socrates was tried by the citizens of Athens on charges of blaspheming the gods and influencing youth negatively. He was found guilty and sentenced to death by drinking cyanide poison, called conium.
8. Death : Socrates died at the age of about 70 years, in 399 BC. This death is described in detail in Plato ‘s “Faidros” dialogue , in which Socrates is given the opportunity to choose between the death penalty or changing his beliefs, but he chooses to remain true to his moral principles and drink poison.
9. Philosophical Legacy : Socrates’ legacy in philosophy includes the development of the dialectical method, an emphasis on true knowledge and ethics, as well as a major influence on his students, especially Plato . Socratic teachings and thought formed the basis for the development of Western philosophy .

The Influence Of Socrates In Literature And Art

Representation Of Socrates In Classical Literary Works

Socrates often appears as a character in classical literary works, especially in philosophical dialogues written by his students, such as Plato and Xenophon. Apart from that, several other literary writers also include Socrates in their works. Here are some examples of representations of Socrates in classical literary works:

1. Plato’s Dialogues : Plato was a famous student of Socrates and wrote many philosophical dialogues featuring Socrates as the main character. Some of the most famous dialogues that include Socrates are “Faidros,” “The State” (The Republic), “Parmenides,” and many others. In these works, Plato records the pointed questions and deep discussions involving Socrates.
2. “Symposium” by Plato : In this work, Socrates is one of the main characters at a drinking party where they discuss love and beauty. Socrates brings his philosophical perspective to this discussion.
3. “Apology” by Plato : This work is a record of Socrates’ self-defense in his trial on charges of blaspheming the gods. Plato recorded Socrates’ speech as he defended himself before the court.
4. “Memorabilia” by Xenophon : Xenophon, another student of Socrates, also wrote about his great teacher in the work “Memorabilia.” This work includes dialogues between Socrates and various characters, including his students.
5. Works of Aristophanes : The ancient Greek comedy writer Aristophanes created the character of Socrates in several of his works, such as “Wolks” and “Clouds.” In these works, Socrates is often depicted as an eccentric and dangerous figure.
6. “Phaedo” by Plato : This work depicts the last moments of Socrates’ life and his conversations with his students before his death. This dialogue records Socrates’ final views on the soul, life after death, and his philosophy.
7. Other Works : Several other classical literary writers, such as Aristotle, also mention or talk about Socrates in their writings.

The representation of Socrates in these works of classical literature helps maintain his legacy in history and illustrates how his thought and methods were highly influential in Ancient Greek culture and philosophy .

Art And Portraits Of Socrates

Socrates is one of the best-known figures in the history of philosophy , but no original physical portrait survives from his lifetime. Therefore, his physical description relies largely on the written descriptions of his students and ancient writers. Some artists also tried to depict Socrates in their works of art based on this description. Here are some related aspects of Socrates’ art and portraits:

1. No Original Portrait : There is no known original portrait depicting Socrates’ face from his lifetime. This is because Socrates lived in the 5th century BC, before the era of photography and portrait painting.
2. Physical Description : Plato and Xenophon provide several physical descriptions of Socrates in their writings. They describe Socrates as a man with a small build, protruding eyes, and somewhat messy curly hair. Socrates was also known for walking on tiptoe, which may have been his trademark.
3. Contemporary Art : Several contemporary artists have attempted to create portraits of Socrates based on these descriptions. However, this is a subjective interpretation and cannot be considered a definitive picture.
4. Depiction in Literary Works : Apart from physical descriptions, classical literary works also try to describe Socrates’ character through his words and dialogue. Works such as Plato’s dialogues describe his personality and philosophical thoughts in greater depth.
5. Statues and Replicas : Although no original statues of Socrates have survived, several statues and replicas depicting Socrates’ character have been created by modern artists. These statues often follow physical descriptions found in ancient writings.

Although we do not have a definitive physical description of Socrates, his thoughts and philosophy were far more important than his physical appearance.

Criticism Of Socrates

Critical Thought On Socrates

Critical thinking about Socrates, such as his dialectical method and philosophical approach, has earned much respect and praise in the history of philosophy . However, as with every thought and concept, there have also been criticisms leveled against the Socratic approach. The following are some criticisms that might be leveled against Socrates’ critical thinking:

1. Excessive Uncertainty : One criticism of Socrates is that his approach of “I only know that I do not know” perhaps overly amplifies uncertainty. Some critics argue that there is a need for some definite knowledge in human thought, especially in practical matters and everyday life.
2. Criticism of the Dialectical Method : The Socratic dialectical method, which involves pointed questions and lengthy discussions, may be considered by some to be complicated and difficult to access. Critics also point out that this method can be used to debate everything without reaching a constructive conclusion.
3. Criticism of Relative Ethics : Socrates often emphasized the importance of ethics and morality in human actions. However, some argue that his approach to ethics can be too relative and does not provide a sound basis for judging right or wrong actions.
4. Criticism of Influence on Youth : Some critics highlight that Socrates’ influence on Athenian youth could have had a negative impact. They argue that the critical thinking advocated by Socrates can lead to instability and disobedience to authority.
5. Criticism of Relations with Politics : Socrates is often considered to have little concern for politics and government structures. Critics argue that the lack of active political participation in Athens’ democratic system was indolent and unprogressive.
6. Criticism of the Death Penalty : Although Socrates was executed by Athenian society on controversial charges, some critics argue that he should not have rejected the possibility of changing his beliefs and chose to be executed. They considered it to be stubborn and unnecessary.

It is important to remember that these criticisms may reflect individual viewpoints and particular interpretations of Socratic thought. Despite criticism, Socrates’ intellectual legacy remains influential in the history of philosophy and has formed the basis for many concepts and methods in critical thinking and ethics .

Criticism In Historical And Cultural Context

Criticism of Socrates in the context of the history and culture of Athens at his time can be understood by looking at several social and political factors that influenced society’s view of him. Here are some criticisms in the historical and cultural context of Socrates:

1. Criticism of Traditional Religion and Beliefs : Socrates often asked critical questions about traditional Greek religious beliefs, and this led to disapproval and criticism from those who held these beliefs dearly. The people of Athens had great respect for their gods and goddesses, and blasphemy against them was taken seriously.
2. Influence on Youth : Socrates had many followers, especially the youth of Athens. Although it aims to teach critical thinking, some see its influence as a potential distraction to the younger generation which is seen as potentially fueling social and political instability.
3. Disapproval of Democracy : Socrates had disapproval of several aspects of Athenian democracy. He cast doubt on the view that policy guidance should be taken from a majority vote without taking proper knowledge or understanding into account. This led to criticism from those who supported a democratic system as the foundation of Athenian government.
4. Indifference to Active Citizenship : Socrates is often thought to have little regard for active political participation in the democratic system of Athens. For those who upheld the importance of active citizenship in city government, Socrates’ attitude could be considered indolent or even defiant to political authority.
5. Criticism in Historical Research : Ancient historians such as Aristophanes and Xenophon created the character of Socrates in their works which may have portrayed their views of him in a critical manner. Aristophanes, in his comedy “Clouds,” depicts Socrates as an eccentric figure who causes confusion in society.
6. Criticism of a Simple Lifestyle : Socrates was known to live in a simple lifestyle and did not accept payment for his teaching. To some, this may be seen as an affront to the respected teaching profession.
7. Criticism of Elenchus : The Socratic dialectical method, which often involves sharp questioning and criticism, may be considered confusing or disturbing by some.

Appreciation And Recognition Of Socrates

Posthumous Prize For Socrates

Posthumous appreciation for Socrates has grown over the centuries, and his thought and contributions to philosophy and culture have been widely recognized and appreciated. The following are several forms of posthumous awards given to Socrates:

1. Influence in Philosophy : Socrates is considered one of the central figures in the history of Western philosophy. Subsequent philosophers, especially Plato and Aristotle, have been greatly inspired by Socratic dialectical thinking and methods. Socrates is revered as one of the founders of Western philosophy .
2. Credits in Literature : Socrates frequently appears as a character in classical and Renaissance literary works, such as the works of Shakespeare. He is described as a wise and mysterious figure, who has made a major contribution to the development of philosophy .
3. Statues and Monuments : Although no original portrait of Socrates survives, several modern statues and monuments have been created in his memory. In the modern world, many cities and universities also have monuments or institutions named after Socrates as a sign of respect for his thoughts.
4. Recognition in Education : Socratic thinking about the dialectical method and critical thinking remains the basis of philosophical education throughout the world. Philosophy courses often begin with a study of Socrates’ thought and method.
5. Influence in Politics : Socratic thinking about ethics , justice, and government also had an influence in political thought. Concepts such as human rights, justice, and political participation originate from the Socratic tradition of thought.
6. Awards in Ethical Debates : Socrates is known for his emphasis on ethics and morality in human actions. Ethical thinkers often refer to Socrates’ thinking in discussing ethical issues in a modern context.
7. Legacy in Free Speech : Socrates’ court case and death sentence have also led to much debate about free speech and human rights. His decision to stand by his beliefs to the death has become a symbol of courage and integrity.

Posthumous tributes to Socrates cover various aspects of his life and thought that have influenced many fields, including philosophy, literature, education, politics, and ethics . His critical thinking, perseverance in seeking knowledge, and firmness in defending his beliefs have been an inspiration for many subsequent generations.

The Image Of Socrates In Popular Culture

The image of Socrates in popular culture has appeared in various forms of media, including film, television, theater, and literature. The character of Socrates is often a source of inspiration for depicting a wise philosopher or as an element in stories that address the themes of philosophy, knowledge, and ethics. Here are some examples of Socrates’ imagery in popular culture:

1. Film and Television : The character of Socrates frequently appears in films and television series that are set in Ancient Greece or focus on philosophical themes . Several films, such as “ The Trial of Socrates ” (1988) and “Socrates” (1971), depict the life and trial of Socrates. Additionally, characters inspired by Socrates appear in various films such as “ The Matrix ” where the character Morpheus has Socratic philosophical traits.
2. Theatre : Socrates is also often used as a character in theatre. Dramas depicting the life and thoughts of Socrates were often performed on stage. One example is the play “Socrates” written by Tim Blake Nelson.
3. Books and Novels : Many authors have created characters inspired by Socrates in their works. For example, in the novel ” Sophie’s World ” by Jostein Gaarder, the character Socrates is one of the important figures who guides the main character’s philosophical journey.
4. Video Games : The character of Socrates appears in video games such as “ Assassin’s Creed Odyssey ” where players can interact with Socrates in an Ancient Greek setting and participate in philosophical dialogues.
5. Famous Quotes : Famous quotes from Socrates are often used in various contexts in popular culture. His famous phrase, “I only know that I don’t know,” is often used to refer to a humble approach to knowledge.
6. Illustrations and Visual Arts : Socrates was also the subject of illustrations and visual arts in various art forms. Paintings, statues, and illustrations depicting Socrates often attempt to capture his philosophical essence and distinctive appearance.

Conclusion

Reflecting On Socrates’ Role In History

Socrates was known for his unique approach, which involved sharp questions and exploring thoughts within humans. He draws closer to the search for true knowledge as the foundation for a deeper understanding of the world and the good life. Moreover, his legacy in philosophy also includes the development of ethics and morality as key principles for acting and deciding. Socrates’ role in history includes his continuing influence on human thought, culture, and the development of philosophical methods .

The Relevance Of Socrates’ Teachings In The Modern World

Socrates’ teachings have strong relevance in the modern world, especially in the context of critical thinking, ethics , and citizen participation in public life. The concept that “I only know that I don’t know” reminds us of the importance of being aware of the limitations of our knowledge and the need to always wonder.

In a world overflowing with information, Socrates teaches us not only to accept knowledge without question, but to actively seek the truth.

The ethics and morality he emphasizes are also relevant in facing ethical challenges in modern society. Socrates taught the importance of acting in accordance with correct values, even when social or political pressures intervene.

Apart from that, his approach to active participation in community life and politics also provides valuable lessons about the importance of citizen involvement in the process of democratization and determining public policy. In an era of complexity and rapid change, Socratic thinking about understanding, ethics , and participation remains relevant and useful for modern humans.

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Reference

• Socrates: A Very Short Introduction by CCW Taylor (2019)
• Socrates: A Man for Our Times by Paul Johnson (2011)
• The Philosophy of Socrates by Thomas C. Brickhouse and Nicholas D. Smith (2001)
• The Trial of Socrates by IF Stone (1988)
• Socratic Ignorance and Democracy by Gregory Vlastos (1983)

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